商标法上的混淆可能性研究

Likelihood of Confusion in Trademark Law

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归属学者:

张体锐

作者:

张体锐

导师:

李雨峰

学位:

博士

语种:

中文

关键词:

商品类似;商标近似;混淆可能性;商标侵权;多因素检测方法

摘要:

依据我国现行商标法,“相同∕近似”标准为商标侵权判定标准,即只要在相同或类似商品上使用相同或近似商标便可以认定存在商标侵权,而不管消费者是否存在混淆可能性。“相同∕近似”标准一方面过分保护商标专用权,容易形成“符号暴力”;另一方面存在“商品类似”、“商标近似”、“混淆可能性”和“商标侵权”之间的逻辑关系错误。比较外国立法例,多数国家都以混淆可能性为商标侵权判定标准,而商品类似和商标近似只是评估混淆可能性的考量因素之一,除这两个因素外还包括被告意图、实际混淆、商标强度等多种因素。因此,确立混淆可能性在我国商标法中的基础性地位具有重要意义。本文试图以混淆可能性的正当性为逻辑起点,以混淆可能性的发展为主线,以“多因素检测方法”为视角,指出我国立法之不足,并提出构建意见。 在研究方法上,主要采用了比较分析法、案例分析法、跨学科分析法。比较分析法几乎贯穿整个论文。本文收集和消化了大量的美国、欧盟、加拿大相关资料,并对我国立法进行横向比较。与外国商标立法相比,我国商标立法最大的不足便是未确立混淆可能性在我国商标侵权判定过程中的基础性地位。在论证过程中,文章援引了大量国内外经典案例:如美国ATMOS时钟案、STEINWAY案、BIGFOOT案;欧盟CANON案、SABEL案;加拿大BARBIE案;我国蓝色风暴案、红河红案、鳄鱼案等。在论述消费者时,引入“消费者认知行为模式”对“合理谨慎消费者”及“消费者注意力”进行跨学科分析。除以上三种主要分析方法外,为论证需要还应用了历史分析法、辩证分析法等。 本文的主要创新之处在于,通过对商标价值形成过程的研究,认为商标的价值形成经过了两个阶段:第一阶段,商标注册人选择一个既存的符号或创造一个新的符号与商品相结合,作为商标投入流通领域;第二阶段,当商标开始流通后,消费者开始认可该商标。这个阶段尤为重要,因为消费者对商标的认可程度决定了应该授予商标的保护程度。既然商标注册人与消费者都对商标价值形成付出了努力,商标注册人与消费者就应该成为商标的共同权利人。作为商标价值的共同创造人消费者理应受到商标制度保护,而混淆可能性恰当保护了商标注册人和消费者的利益,实现了利益平衡。 在结构上,文章分为六部分,约十八万字。 第一章论证了以消费者混淆可能性评估商标侵权的正当性,并详述了混淆可能性的概念、起源、发展及功能。首先,研究支撑商标混淆可能性制度的法哲学基础。传统的功利主义和经济理论追逐财富最大化与经济效率,过分扩大对商标注册人的保护范围,轻视了对消费者权利的保护,导致了商标注册人与消费者之间的利益失衡,因此无法证明混淆可能性制度的正当性。社会规划理论肯定了消费者在商标价值创造过程中的作用,认为是商标注册人与消费公众共同创造了商标价值。从这个意义上讲,消费者有权免于使用任何可能引起自身混淆的商标。然而,该理论本身也存在一定缺陷,如该理论中的“分配正义”在认定上具有主观性,难以在司法实践中形成统一的司法认知,不利于保护商标注册人利益,而且有碍自由竞争。因此,将二者相结合,以“经济—社会规划论”为混淆可能性法哲学基础较为合理。其次,文章从商标功能角度界定了混淆可能性概念,认为广义混淆可能性概念更为合理。再次,对混淆可能性的起源及发展历程进行梳理。在商标保护初期,法院通常依据欺诈理论追究行为人的侵权责任。然而,欺诈理论本身并不能充分保护商标注册人和消费者利益,因此法院开始寻求新的混淆可能性标准评估商标侵权案件。最初的混淆可能性理论仅指消费者对商品来源的混淆,随后出现了初始利益混淆、售后混淆和反向混淆等。最后,混淆可能性既厘清了商标专用权范围,又恰当地平衡了商标注册人、消费者与其他竞争者之间的利益关系。 第二章探讨了混淆可能性在司法实践中的两种存在形式,混淆可能性推定与混淆可能性判定。混淆可能性推定规则适用于相同商标应用在相同商品上的案件,而混淆可能性判定规则适用于相同商标应用在类似商品上以及相似商标应用在类似商品上的案件。在混淆可能性的具体适用上,各国通常采用“多因素检测方法”,一般包括消费者因素、商标因素、商品因素、被告意图因素、实际混淆五类因素。在“多因素检测方法”框架下,各因素之间具有一定的灵活性与相关性。每个因素都是可变的、相对的,并且在个案中的作用具有变量特性。因此,法院在审理具体案件时,不应过分重视单个因素,应将其他诸因素综合起来作为“混合体”加以考虑。 第三章从司法模式与消费者认知行为模式出发,诠释了“理性消费者”的含义并考量了评估消费者注意力水平的相关因素。该部分试图通过将发展完善的消费者行为理论与盲动的司法实践相结合,以弥合这种理论与实践的裂缝。在消费者注意力水平的评估上,法院通常依据商品价格、购买行为持续的时间及复杂程度、购买行为的频繁性、购买者自身的条件、购买者类型等因素判断。 第四章研究了商标因素在混淆可能性认定过程中的具体适用。商标因素具体包括商标强度和商标相似度。从商标强度来说,商标越强保护范围越广泛,商标越弱保护范围越狭小。值得注意的是,商标强度不等于商标的显著性,而是商标显著性与商标知名度的融合。同时,强和弱的划分是相对的,只是为了分析的便利,事实上更多的商标处于广泛的中间地带。此外,商标强度具有动态性,在具体认定过程中必须结合商标诞生之初的概念强度和涉诉时的商业强度综合判断。从商标法意义上的商标相似性来说,是一种“混淆性近似”,单纯的商标在物理意义或者自然状态下的近似事实是不够的。认定商标相似性需要以普通消费者的一般注意力为标准,在商标使用背景下对商标进行通体观察并着重比较商标的主要部分,同时依据现实市场条件对商标隔离比较与并行比较,此外还需考虑商标强度、商标使用的特定历史和实际使用情形。在具体比较时,以音、形、义为分析结构。 第五章分析了商品因素在混淆可能性认定过程中的具体适用。法律对商品保护范围经历了从竞争规则到相同描述属性规则再到商标类似规则的演变。商品或服务的保护范围以避免消费者混淆为必要限度。在商标相同或相似的具体认定上,法院往往依据商品分类表与区分表、商品功能和商品属性、商标强度与相似度、商品之间的竞争关系、商品质量、销售渠道、商品多元化与自然扩张七个方面加以考量。 第六章反思我国商标侵权检测标准的立法现状及不足,并提出构建意见。在立法宗旨上,我国现行商标法侧重保护商标注册人,对消费者利益关注较少,引起了商标当事人利益的失衡。我国《商标法》正文避开了混淆可能性概念,对此只字未提,虽然在后来的司法解释中引入了混淆可能性概念,但并未确立混淆可能性的基准性地位。我国现行法律以“相同∕近似”标准认定商标侵权,即无论是否造成相关公众的混淆,只要在相同或类似商品上使用相同或近似商标的行为都可以认定为商标侵权。“相同∕近似”标准,违背了商标基本功能,容易形成“符号暴力”,而且存在着“商标相似或商品类似、混淆可能性、商标侵权”三者关系定位的逻辑错误。建议:首先,重新定位商标法立法宗旨。恰当的立法旨趣应当以保护商标注册人和防止消费者混淆为核心,同时以维护公平竞争为目的;其次,厘清“商标相似或商品类似、混淆可能性、商标侵权”三者关系,以混淆可能性为商标侵权判定标准。再次,以“多因素检测方法”评估混淆可能性,包括实际混淆程度、商标相似性、商标强度、商品类似性、消费者注意力水平、被告意图等一切与案件事实相关的因素。

学科:

民商法学

提交日期

2018-01-11

引用参考

张体锐. 商标法上的混淆可能性研究[D]. 西南政法大学,2012.

全文附件授权许可

知识共享许可协议-署名

  • dc.title
  • 商标法上的混淆可能性研究
  • dc.title
  • Likelihood of Confusion in Trademark Law
  • dc.contributor.schoolno
  • b2009030125101
  • dc.contributor.author
  • 张体锐
  • dc.contributor.degree
  • 博士
  • dc.contributor.degreeConferringInstitution
  • 西南政法大学
  • dc.identifier.year
  • 2012
  • dc.contributor.advisor
  • 李雨峰
  • dc.language.iso
  • 中文
  • dc.subject
  • 商品类似;;商标近似;;混淆可能性;;商标侵权;;多因素检测方法
  • dc.subject
  • Proximity of products;;similarity of marks;;likelihood of confusion;;trademark infringement;;multi-factor test
  • dc.description.abstract
  • 依据我国现行商标法,“相同∕近似”标准为商标侵权判定标准,即只要在相同或类似商品上使用相同或近似商标便可以认定存在商标侵权,而不管消费者是否存在混淆可能性。“相同∕近似”标准一方面过分保护商标专用权,容易形成“符号暴力”;另一方面存在“商品类似”、“商标近似”、“混淆可能性”和“商标侵权”之间的逻辑关系错误。比较外国立法例,多数国家都以混淆可能性为商标侵权判定标准,而商品类似和商标近似只是评估混淆可能性的考量因素之一,除这两个因素外还包括被告意图、实际混淆、商标强度等多种因素。因此,确立混淆可能性在我国商标法中的基础性地位具有重要意义。本文试图以混淆可能性的正当性为逻辑起点,以混淆可能性的发展为主线,以“多因素检测方法”为视角,指出我国立法之不足,并提出构建意见。 在研究方法上,主要采用了比较分析法、案例分析法、跨学科分析法。比较分析法几乎贯穿整个论文。本文收集和消化了大量的美国、欧盟、加拿大相关资料,并对我国立法进行横向比较。与外国商标立法相比,我国商标立法最大的不足便是未确立混淆可能性在我国商标侵权判定过程中的基础性地位。在论证过程中,文章援引了大量国内外经典案例:如美国ATMOS时钟案、STEINWAY案、BIGFOOT案;欧盟CANON案、SABEL案;加拿大BARBIE案;我国蓝色风暴案、红河红案、鳄鱼案等。在论述消费者时,引入“消费者认知行为模式”对“合理谨慎消费者”及“消费者注意力”进行跨学科分析。除以上三种主要分析方法外,为论证需要还应用了历史分析法、辩证分析法等。 本文的主要创新之处在于,通过对商标价值形成过程的研究,认为商标的价值形成经过了两个阶段:第一阶段,商标注册人选择一个既存的符号或创造一个新的符号与商品相结合,作为商标投入流通领域;第二阶段,当商标开始流通后,消费者开始认可该商标。这个阶段尤为重要,因为消费者对商标的认可程度决定了应该授予商标的保护程度。既然商标注册人与消费者都对商标价值形成付出了努力,商标注册人与消费者就应该成为商标的共同权利人。作为商标价值的共同创造人消费者理应受到商标制度保护,而混淆可能性恰当保护了商标注册人和消费者的利益,实现了利益平衡。 在结构上,文章分为六部分,约十八万字。 第一章论证了以消费者混淆可能性评估商标侵权的正当性,并详述了混淆可能性的概念、起源、发展及功能。首先,研究支撑商标混淆可能性制度的法哲学基础。传统的功利主义和经济理论追逐财富最大化与经济效率,过分扩大对商标注册人的保护范围,轻视了对消费者权利的保护,导致了商标注册人与消费者之间的利益失衡,因此无法证明混淆可能性制度的正当性。社会规划理论肯定了消费者在商标价值创造过程中的作用,认为是商标注册人与消费公众共同创造了商标价值。从这个意义上讲,消费者有权免于使用任何可能引起自身混淆的商标。然而,该理论本身也存在一定缺陷,如该理论中的“分配正义”在认定上具有主观性,难以在司法实践中形成统一的司法认知,不利于保护商标注册人利益,而且有碍自由竞争。因此,将二者相结合,以“经济—社会规划论”为混淆可能性法哲学基础较为合理。其次,文章从商标功能角度界定了混淆可能性概念,认为广义混淆可能性概念更为合理。再次,对混淆可能性的起源及发展历程进行梳理。在商标保护初期,法院通常依据欺诈理论追究行为人的侵权责任。然而,欺诈理论本身并不能充分保护商标注册人和消费者利益,因此法院开始寻求新的混淆可能性标准评估商标侵权案件。最初的混淆可能性理论仅指消费者对商品来源的混淆,随后出现了初始利益混淆、售后混淆和反向混淆等。最后,混淆可能性既厘清了商标专用权范围,又恰当地平衡了商标注册人、消费者与其他竞争者之间的利益关系。 第二章探讨了混淆可能性在司法实践中的两种存在形式,混淆可能性推定与混淆可能性判定。混淆可能性推定规则适用于相同商标应用在相同商品上的案件,而混淆可能性判定规则适用于相同商标应用在类似商品上以及相似商标应用在类似商品上的案件。在混淆可能性的具体适用上,各国通常采用“多因素检测方法”,一般包括消费者因素、商标因素、商品因素、被告意图因素、实际混淆五类因素。在“多因素检测方法”框架下,各因素之间具有一定的灵活性与相关性。每个因素都是可变的、相对的,并且在个案中的作用具有变量特性。因此,法院在审理具体案件时,不应过分重视单个因素,应将其他诸因素综合起来作为“混合体”加以考虑。 第三章从司法模式与消费者认知行为模式出发,诠释了“理性消费者”的含义并考量了评估消费者注意力水平的相关因素。该部分试图通过将发展完善的消费者行为理论与盲动的司法实践相结合,以弥合这种理论与实践的裂缝。在消费者注意力水平的评估上,法院通常依据商品价格、购买行为持续的时间及复杂程度、购买行为的频繁性、购买者自身的条件、购买者类型等因素判断。 第四章研究了商标因素在混淆可能性认定过程中的具体适用。商标因素具体包括商标强度和商标相似度。从商标强度来说,商标越强保护范围越广泛,商标越弱保护范围越狭小。值得注意的是,商标强度不等于商标的显著性,而是商标显著性与商标知名度的融合。同时,强和弱的划分是相对的,只是为了分析的便利,事实上更多的商标处于广泛的中间地带。此外,商标强度具有动态性,在具体认定过程中必须结合商标诞生之初的概念强度和涉诉时的商业强度综合判断。从商标法意义上的商标相似性来说,是一种“混淆性近似”,单纯的商标在物理意义或者自然状态下的近似事实是不够的。认定商标相似性需要以普通消费者的一般注意力为标准,在商标使用背景下对商标进行通体观察并着重比较商标的主要部分,同时依据现实市场条件对商标隔离比较与并行比较,此外还需考虑商标强度、商标使用的特定历史和实际使用情形。在具体比较时,以音、形、义为分析结构。 第五章分析了商品因素在混淆可能性认定过程中的具体适用。法律对商品保护范围经历了从竞争规则到相同描述属性规则再到商标类似规则的演变。商品或服务的保护范围以避免消费者混淆为必要限度。在商标相同或相似的具体认定上,法院往往依据商品分类表与区分表、商品功能和商品属性、商标强度与相似度、商品之间的竞争关系、商品质量、销售渠道、商品多元化与自然扩张七个方面加以考量。 第六章反思我国商标侵权检测标准的立法现状及不足,并提出构建意见。在立法宗旨上,我国现行商标法侧重保护商标注册人,对消费者利益关注较少,引起了商标当事人利益的失衡。我国《商标法》正文避开了混淆可能性概念,对此只字未提,虽然在后来的司法解释中引入了混淆可能性概念,但并未确立混淆可能性的基准性地位。我国现行法律以“相同∕近似”标准认定商标侵权,即无论是否造成相关公众的混淆,只要在相同或类似商品上使用相同或近似商标的行为都可以认定为商标侵权。“相同∕近似”标准,违背了商标基本功能,容易形成“符号暴力”,而且存在着“商标相似或商品类似、混淆可能性、商标侵权”三者关系定位的逻辑错误。建议:首先,重新定位商标法立法宗旨。恰当的立法旨趣应当以保护商标注册人和防止消费者混淆为核心,同时以维护公平竞争为目的;其次,厘清“商标相似或商品类似、混淆可能性、商标侵权”三者关系,以混淆可能性为商标侵权判定标准。再次,以“多因素检测方法”评估混淆可能性,包括实际混淆程度、商标相似性、商标强度、商品类似性、消费者注意力水平、被告意图等一切与案件事实相关的因素。
  • dc.description.abstract
  • According to China's current law,"Identical/Similarity" standard is trademarkinfringement test, namely, as long as using identical or similar trademark on identical orsimilar products can be hold trademark infringement, regardless of whether consumers areconfused. On one hand,"Identical/Similarity" standard excessively widens the scope ofprotection to trademark owners, which are easy to form "symbolic violence". On the otherhand, there are logical relationship errors among "similarity of trademarks","Proximity ofproducts or services","Likelihood of confusion" and "trademark infringement". Comparingwith foreign legislation,"likelihood of confusion" is the criterion of trademark infringementin most jurisdictions of the world, while "similarity of trademarks" and "Proximity ofproducts" are only two assessing factors in the judge. In addition to "similarity of trademarks"and "Proximity of products", there are still other consideration factors such as defendant'sintent, actual confusion, strength of trademark and the degree of care employed by consumers.It is important to correct our unreasonable "Identical/Similarity" test and establish "likelihoodof confusion" criterion. This article is intended to start with legitimacy of likelihood ofconfusion, put the development of likelihood of confusion as the main line and in the view ofmulti-factor test in order to have a deep study on likelihood of confusion theory, aiming topoint out China's legislation deficiency and propose the construction opinions. The paper mainly uses comparative analysis, case analysis, interdisciplinary analysis.Method of comparative analysis and case analysis are almost throughout the entire thesis. Onthe basis of collecting and digesting large amounts of related materials about United States,European Union and Canada, the paper reaches a conclusion that the biggest deficiency ofChina's trademark law is lack of fundamental criterion of likelihood of confusion. In theprocess of argumentation, the article quoted a large number of domestic and foreign classicalcases, such as ATMOS clock case of USA, CANON case of EU, BARBIE case of Canada andBlue Storm case of China. When comes to consumer, the article introduces "consumerbehavior model" and give a interdisciplinary analysis to "reasonable prudent consumer" and"the degree of care". In addition to the above three major analysis methods, the article stilluses historical analysis and dialectical analysis. The main innovation of this paper is the idea about "common authors" model. By studying on the formation of brand value, there are two stages in fact: in the first stage,trademark registrant selects an existing symbol or creates a new symbol as his trademark andputs into market; in the second stage, consuming public begin to recognize the trademark.This stage is particularly important, because the degree of recognition decides the scope thetrademark protection at last. Since trademark registrant and consumers both contribute tobrand value, they are entitled to be common authors. In a result, consuming public as thecommon creator of trademark value should be protected, and likelihood of confusion testproperly achieves the balance of interests between trademark registrant and consumers. In the structure, the paper is divided into six parts, and the total amount is about180,000words. PartⅠ demonstrates the jurisprudence of "Likelihood of confusion" and recounts theconception, genesis, development and functions of "Likelihood of confusion". First of all, thechapter has a research on jurisprudence of "Likelihood of confusion". Utilitarian andeconomic theory cannot justify "Likelihood of confusion", because the theory goes afterwealth maximization and economic efficiency, excessively widens the scope of protection totrademark owners, paying less attention to consumer rights, leading to interest unbalancesbetween trademark owner and consuming public at last. Social-planning theory confirms therole of consumers played in the process of brand value creation, holding that trademark ownerand consuming public create brand value together. In this sense, consuming public are entitledto be protected from trademark confusion. While there are still some disadvantages.Forexample, the conception of "distributive justice" belongs to subjective recognition,thereforeit is difficult to reach a uniform judicial notice in practice. In addition, the theory itselfovertones planned economy color, so it goes against trademark owner's rights to be confusedby trademark uses and impedes the free competition. In conclusion, adopting the combinationof the two theories as the foundation of likelihood of confusion is much better. Secondly, thechapter defines the concept of likelihood of confusion in the view of trademark functions, andagrees with the definition of likelihood of confusion in broad sense. Thirdly, the chaptercombs the genesis and development of likelihood of confusion. In early period,the courtsusually based on fraud theory to hold liability of trademark infringement. However, fraudtheory could not protect trademark owner and consuming public adequately. Therefore, thecourt began to look for new trademark infringement test: likelihood of confusion. Initially,likelihood of confusion only referred to source confusion of goods at sale, subsequently expanded to initial interest confusion, post-sale confusion, reverse confusion and so on. Lastly,likelihood of confusion not only clarifies the scope of exclusive right, but also properlybalances the interests of trademark owner, consumer and other competitors. PartⅡ explores two forms of likelihood of confusion existing in judicial practice,presumption and determination. Presumption rules apply to identity case, namely, identicalmark using on identical product, and determination rules are adequate for the other casesexcept there is no trademark infringement, including similar marks using on identical goodsand similar marks using on similar goods. In the specific application of likelihood ofconfusion, most of the countries apply "multi-factor tests" to evaluate likelihood of confusion.By comparison,the test basically consists of five factors, particularly "mark factor","productfactor","consumer factor","defendant's intent" and "actual confusion". According to"multi-factor tests", there are flexibility and interrelatedness among the factors. Each factor ismutable and relative. As a result, when judging a certain case, the court should not put toomuch emphasis on individual factors, while related factors may be consolidated forconsideration. PartⅢ from judicial model and consumer cognitive behavior model, interprets themeaning of "rational consumer" and takes related factors which will evaluate the level ofconsumer attention into accounts. This part tries to combine developed consumer cognitivebehavior with judicial practice so that it can heal the gaps between theory and practice.Meanwhile, this part discusses the factors evaluating the level of consumer attention, such asthe price of product, length and complexity of the purchase process, frequency of purchase,the purchaser's own conditions, the types of the purchaser and so on. PartⅣ mainly discusses trademark factor in the course of evaluating likelihood ofconfusion. Trademark factor includes two specific factors, strength of trademark andsimilarity of trademarks. Generally, the higher strength of the trademark, the more protectionto trademark; in contrast, the lower strength the trademark is, the less protection to trademark.Notably, strength of trademark is not equal to the distinctiveness of trademark, but theintegrations of the distinctiveness and the fame. Meanwhile, strong and weak are relative,only for convenience of analysis. In fact, most trademarks lie in extensive intermediate zone.Furthermore, the strength of trademark is variable so that the courts should comprehensivelyconsider both the inherent conceptual strength and commercial strength. In the sense oftrademark law, trademark similarity is confusing similarity, the similarity in physical meaning or nature state is not sufficient. When assesses the similarity of trademarks, there are someprinciples should be obeyed. For examples, focus on the general level of reasonable prudentconsumers, compare the marks in their entireties and put much attention to the main part,consider marks singly or together referring to real market conditions, strength of marks,specific historical and actual uses of mark and so on. In addition, the courts usually applysound, meaning and appearance to analyze the trademarks between the parties. PartⅤ analyzes product factor in the course of evaluating likelihood of confusion. Thelaw on commodity protection changed from "competition" rules,"same descriptive property"rules to "related goods" rules. The boundary of product protection is likelihood of confusion.When assesses the Proximity of products s, the courts tend to refer to classification of product,functions and attributes of the products, strength of mark, similarity of marks, competitionrelationships between products, quality of products, sale channels, product diversity andnatural expansion. PartⅣ rethinks present legislations and disadvantages of China's trademark infringementtest, and proposes constructed opinions. In the legislative purposes, China's current trademarklaw excessively widens the scope of protection to trademark owners, but pays less attention toconsumer rights. These facts lead to interest unbalances between trademark owner andconsuming public at last. In China's current trademark law text, there is not a "likelihood ofconfusion" concept, said nothing to it. Although referred to "likelihood of confusion" injudicial interpretation later, China's trademark law did not put "likelihood of confusion" in abasic position. According to China's current trademark law, infringement test is"Same Similarity" standard, namely, as long as the actor apply a identical or similar trademarkand use on a identical or similar product, there is a trademark infringement, It doesn't matterwhether consuming public have been confused."Same Similarity" standard violates the basicfunctions of trademark and tends to form "symbolic violence", meanwhile it lies wrongpositions to "similarity of trademarks","Proximity of products","Likelihood of confusion"and "trademark infringement". Suggestions: first of all, relocate the legislative purpose oftrademark law, protect both trademark owners' interest and against consumer confusion, at thesame time maintain free competition. Secondly, make clear the logical relationships among"similarity of trademarks or Proximity of products","likelihood of confusion" and "trademarkinfringement". It is crucial to make "likelihood of confusion" as trademark infringement basictest. Thirdly, applying "multi-factor "to assess "likelihood of confusion", including actual confusion, similarity of marks, strength of mark, Proximity of products, attention level ofreasonable prudent consumers, defendant's intent and all factors related to certain case.
  • dc.subject.discipline
  • D923.43
  • dc.date.issued
  • 2012-03-08
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